NCTM+Teaching+Principle

//Effective mathematics teaching requires understanding what students know and need to learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well.//
 * NCTM Principles and Standards**
 * The Teaching Principle**

Students learn mathematics through the experiences that teachers provide. Thus, __students' understanding of mathematics, their ability to use it to solve problems, and their confidence in, and disposition toward, mathematics are all shaped by the teaching they encounter in school.__ The improvement of mathematics education for all students requires effective mathematics teaching in all classrooms. Teaching mathematics well is a complex endeavor, and there are no easy recipes for helping all students learn or for helping all teachers become effective. Nevertheless, much is known about effective mathematics teaching, and this knowledge should guide professional judgment and activity. __To be effective, teachers must know and understand deeply the mathematics they are teaching and be able to draw on that knowledge with flexibility__ in their teaching tasks. They need to understand and be committed to their students as learners of mathematics and as human beings and be skillful in choosing from and using a variety of pedagogical and assessment strategies (National Commission on Teaching and America's Future 1996). In addition, effective teaching requires reflection and continual efforts to seek improvement. Teachers must have frequent and ample opportunities and resources to enhance and refresh their knowledge. The //Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics// (NCTM, 1991) presented six standards for the teaching of mathematics. They addressed– the analysis of teaching and learning. Teachers need several different kinds of mathematical knowledge—knowledge about the whole domain; deep, flexible knowledge about curriculum goals and about the important ideas that are central to their grade level; knowledge about the challenges students are likely to encounter in learning these ideas; knowledge about how the ideas can be represented to teach them effectively; and knowledge about how students' understanding can be assessed. __This knowledge helps teachers make curricular judgments__, respond to students' questions, and look ahead to where concepts are leading and plan accordingly. Pedagogical knowledge, much of which is acquired and shaped through the practice of teaching, helps teachers understand how students learn mathematics, become facile with a range of different teaching techniques and instructional materials, and organize and manage the classroom. __Teachers need to understand the big ideas of mathematics and be able to represent mathematics as a coherent and connected enterprise (Schifter 1999; Ma 1999).__ Their decisions and their actions in the classroom—all of which affect how well their students learn mathematics—should be based on this knowledge. This kind of knowledge is beyond what most teachers experience in standard preservice mathematics courses in the United States. For example, that fractions can be understood as parts of a whole, the quotient of two integers, or a number on a line is important for mathematics teachers (Ball and Bass forthcoming). Such understanding might be characterized as __"profound understanding of fundamental mathematics" (Ma 1999).__ Teachers also need to understand the different representations of an idea, the relative strengths and weaknesses of each, and how they are related to one another (Wilson, Shulman, and Richert 1987). They need to know the ideas with which students often have difficulty and ways to help bridge common misunderstandings. Effective mathematics teaching requires a serious commitment to the development of students' understanding of mathematics. Because students learn by connecting new ideas to prior knowledge, teachers must understand what their students already know. Effective teachers know how to ask questions and plan lessons that reveal students' prior knowledge; they can then design experiences and lessons that respond to, and build on, this knowledge. Teachers have different styles and strategies for helping students learn particular mathematical ideas, and there is no one "right way" to teach. However, __effective teachers recognize that the decisions they make shape students' mathematical dispositions and can create rich settings for learning.__ Selecting and using suitable curricular materials, using appropriate instructional tools and techniques, and engaging in reflective practice and continuous self-improvement are actions good teachers take every day. __One of the complexities of mathematics teaching is that it must balance purposeful, planned classroom lessons with the ongoing decision making that inevitably occurs as teachers and students encounter unanticipated discoveries or difficulties that lead them into uncharted territory__. Teaching mathematics well involves creating, enriching, maintaining, and adapting instruction to move toward mathematical goals, capture and sustain interest, and engage students in building mathematical understanding. __Teachers make many choices each day about how the learning environment will be structured and what mathematics will be emphasized. These decisions determine, to a large extent, what students learn.__ Effective teaching conveys a belief that each student can and is expected to understand mathematics and that each will be supported in his or her efforts to accomplish this goal. Teachers establish and nurture an environment conducive to learning mathematics through the decisions they make, the conversations they orchestrate, and the physical setting they create. Teachers' actions are what encourage students to think, question, solve problems, and discuss their ideas, strategies, and solutions. The teacher is responsible for creating an intellectual environment where serious mathematical thinking is the norm. More than just a physical setting with desks, bulletin boards, and posters, the classroom environment communicates subtle messages about what is valued in learning and doing mathematics. Are students' discussion and collaboration encouraged? Are students expected to justify their thinking? If students are to learn to make conjectures, experiment with various approaches to solving problems, construct mathematical arguments and respond to others' arguments, then creating an environment that fosters these kinds of activities is essential. __In effective teaching, worthwhile mathematical tasks are used to introduce important mathematical ideas and to engage and challenge students intellectually.__ __Well-chosen tasks__ can pique students' curiosity and draw them into mathematics. The tasks may be connected to the » real-world experiences of students, or they may arise in contexts that are purely mathematical. Regardless of the context, worthwhile tasks should be intriguing, with a level of challenge that invites speculation and hard work. Such tasks often can be approached in more than one way, such as using an arithmetic counting approach, drawing a geometric diagram and enumerating possibilities, or using algebraic equations, which makes the tasks accessible to students with varied prior knowledge and experience. Worthwhile tasks alone are not sufficient for effective teaching. __Teachers must also decide__ what aspects of a task to highlight, how to organize and orchestrate the work of the students, what questions to ask to challenge those with varied levels of expertise, and how to support students without taking over the process of thinking for them and thus eliminating the challenge. __Effective teaching involves observing students, listening carefully to their ideas and explanations, having mathematical goals, and using the information to make instructional decisions__. Teachers who employ such practices motivate students to engage in mathematical thinking and reasoning and provide learning opportunities that challenge students at all levels of understanding. Effective teaching requires continuing efforts to learn and improve. These efforts include learning about mathematics and pedagogy, benefiting from interactions with students and colleagues, and engaging in ongoing professional development and self-reflection. Opportunities to reflect on and refine instructional practice—during class and outside class, alone and with others—are crucial in the vision of school mathematics outlined in //Principles and Standards.// To improve their mathematics instruction, teachers must be able to analyze what they and their students are doing and consider how those actions are affecting students' learning. Using a variety of strategies, teachers should monitor students' capacity and inclination to __analyze situations, frame and solve problems, and make sense of mathematical concepts and procedures__. They can use this information to assess their students' progress and to appraise how well the mathematical tasks, student discourse, and classroom environment are interacting to foster students' learning. They then use these appraisals to adapt their instruction. Reflection and analysis are often individual activities, but they can be greatly enhanced by teaming with an experienced and respected colleague, a new teacher, or a community of teachers. Collaborating with colleagues regularly to observe, analyze, and discuss teaching and students' thinking or to do "lesson study" is a powerful, yet neglected, form of professional development in American schools (Stigler and Hiebert 1999). The work and time of teachers must be structured to allow and support professional development that will benefit them and their students.
 * __worthwhile mathematical tasks__;
 * the teacher's role in __discourse__;
 * the student's role in discourse;
 * tools for enhancing discourse;
 * the learning environment;
 * Effective teaching requires knowing and understanding mathematics, students as learners, and pedagogical strategies.**
 * Effective teaching requires a challenging and supportive classroom learning environment.**
 * Effective teaching requires continually seeking improvement.**