NBPTS+Science

At the daybreak of this new century and millennium...the future well-being of our nation and people depends not just on how well we educate our children generally, but on how well we educate them in mathematics and science specifically.... The most direct route to improving mathematics and science achievement for all students is better mathematics and science teaching.
 * National Board for Professional Teaching Standards **
 * Science Standards **

1. The National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century (Glenn Commission). //Before It's Too Late// (Washington, D.C.: The National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, 2000).

Science education is being reshaped in the United States. The changes have been partly fueled by a long-standing conviction shared by social planners and the members of the Glenn Commission: This nation’s economic and political future depends heavily on how well the nation’s youth learn science and technology. __The nation and its children deserve and must have science teachers who know their students, know their subject, and are passionate about both.__ All teachers of science must rise to the same challenge and meet the same goal: to provide a rich and robust science education so all students leave their classrooms—and formal education—__knowledgeable and enthusiastic about science__ and ready to take their places as productive citizens.

Research shows that children who receive quality science instruction in the elementary years enjoy and benefit from the experience. By the middle grades, however, too many youngsters display a negative attitude toward science. Science performances begin to lag, especially among many female and minority students. To be sure, a segment of high school students receives a superb preparation in the sciences as measured against any standard of excellence in the world. Far too many young people discover, however, that by the time they reach high school—and without having made a conscious decision in the matter—they effectively have been consigned to a minimal-science, low-opportunity learning track.
 * The Challenge Before the Science Education Community **

This state of affairs is unacceptable for many reasons, not the least of which is singularly pragmatic. The U.S. Department of Commerce has forecast that women and members of minority groups will soon make up almost two-thirds of the new workforce in the United States. More jobs than ever before—and a higher proportion of the bestpaying ones—will require a functional knowledge of science and mathematics. __Clearly, then, looked at as a question of opening the doors of opportunity for every student or as a matter of national self-interest, schools must ensure that all students have the opportunity to become intellectually__ __ competent and confident __ __in science.__

Beyond economic considerations are other compelling reasons for aspiring to this inclusive goal. When taught by accomplished teachers, science stimulates curiosity about the world. Science makes students aware of commonalities, while expanding their understanding and appreciation of diversity. Students taught well in science develop a fascination for life in all its forms, which contributes to their desire to learn about the world and to respect its makeup as well as its inhabitants. Students who understand multiple methods and philosophies of science develop a deeply satisfying approach to looking at the world and helping shape it, one that will reward their efforts for the rest of their lives. __They learn that the pursuit of science is enjoyable in its own right and that this pursuit helps them develop invaluable cognitive processes of reasoning and analysis.__ They also learn that science belongs to everyone. The drive to understand the natural environment and thereby gain a measure of control over it is universal and exhibited by peoples from all ethnic backgrounds, eras, and civilizations through recorded time. Science contributes to students’ respect for their own culture as well as for a common heritage. Science can help students explore in their everyday environs the full measure of their own humanity and help them play a responsible part in society. In a time of increasingly complex debates over public policy and the uses of technology, a knowledge of science and a commitment to the enjoyment of science have become essential ingredients of good citizenship.

Certainly, improving science education will require a great deal of work by all members of the education community. The curricular reforms in science that followed the launching of Sputnik I in 1957 were aimed, for the most part, at guaranteeing that the nation’s education system would produce a cadre of talented young scientists sufficient to meet the nation’s needs. Now, however, the consensus is that the commitment of schools to science education must be far more inclusive and ensure that all students reach the vital goal of becoming scientifically literate.
 * Moving Toward a New Vision of Science Education **

What might that science literacy entail? Two national science organizations—the American Association for the Advancement of Science through its Project 2061 and the National Research Council through its development of //National Science Education// //Standards//2—continue to be engaged in major reform initiatives in science education to improve the science literacy of all students. Both have adopted the same overriding goal: All students will be scientifically literate by the time they graduate from high school. As defined in their documents, a scientifically literate person is one who has a strong knowledge of __(1) the nature of science, including a grasp of the various__ __ inquiry processes that scientists use to discover new knowledge as well as of the attitudes and habits of mind — honesty, skepticism, openness to new ideas, and curiosity essential to an objective investigator; (2) the most important concepts from the body of scientific knowledge; and (3) the human contexts of science, including a familiarity with the history of its development and its reciprocal relationship with mathematics and technology, and their mutual economic, political, and cultural impacts on society. Most important, a scientifically literate person not only knows about these various aspects of science but also uses them in ethical decision making and participation in civic life. __ Science literacy for all students is an attainable goal; reaching it, however, will require continued progress. In particular, science education in the United States has been criticized for a tendency to overburden students with the mastery of facts and technical terminology at the expense of having them actively doing science—observing phenomena, asking questions, making predictions, devising tests of their ideas, recording data accurately, reaching conclusions, and clearly communicating results. The philosophy that underlies this document is based on several assumptions about how children learn, all supported by a growing body of research. One is that __students learn best when actively engaged, physically and mentally, through__ __ experience-based activities in science accompanied by regular opportunities to think about the significance of what they have been seeing and doing and to develop deep understanding of key scientific concepts. A second is that students benefit immensely when they are helped to explore science concepts that derive from or connect with their everyday experiences in the world. A third is that students’ insights are enriched when they have opportunities to share and test their ideas with the larger team of investigators in the classroom and beyond. __

The ability to steer a purposeful, yet flexible and responsive, learning course through the school day and year presumes, among other things, that the teacher has command of the subject matter. Indeed, all the central acts of teaching science—choosing or designing worthwhile activities, guiding discussion, responding appropriately to student questions and initiatives, negotiating instructional goals—require it. But what, exactly, is the knowledge base that an accomplished science teacher must command, given the extraordinary vastness of the domain of science ? Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers must be scientifically literate. __Such teachers must be well versed in (1) the nature of science and science as inquiry, including habits of mind, attitudes, and dispositions; (2) the fundamental concepts, laws, and theories that demarcate the content knowledge in the earth and space sciences, life sciences, and physical sciences; and (3) the historical, social, cultural, and technological contexts out of which the science enterprise has developed and in which it functions today.__ __ Accomplished science teachers supplement their broad knowledge of science with a deep and specialized knowledge of earth and space science, life science, or physical science (chemistry and/or physics). __
 * // Standard II: Understanding Science //**

Accomplished science teachers have a thorough comprehension of science as an approach to building a consistent, testable set of understandings about how the world works. They recognize which kinds of questions fall within the purview of science and which do not. They are aware and respectful of other ways of interpreting the world; however, they also recognize and understand that the processes of science have a rigor and a predictive power all their own to which all students deserve access. Science teachers know what qualifies as authentic scientific investigation. They have a clear sense of the various strategies that scientists might use to frame an inquiry and open questions for further exploration; of the central importance of basing conclusions on empirical evidence; of the values and habits of mind that characterize the scientific endeavor; and of the importance of clearly communicating results to the scientific community.
 * Nature of Science and Science as Inquiry **

Having a clear understanding of the nature of science is essential for the teaching of adolescents and young adults. It is essential because, as Henri Poincaré so eloquently noted, science may be made up of facts, “but a collection of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.” Teachers know that making connections among facts helps students define systems of operation in the natural and designed world, such as body systems, rock formations, and hydrostatic and electrical systems. Students must experience the vitality of science in school before they can see science as a creative way of looking at the world and as a way of answering questions that matter to them. Only teachers who understand how science works, who hold a broad understanding of the role of skepticism in science, who know how ideas change as new evidence becomes available, who appreciate the fluidity of science, and who embody the openness to fresh ideas characteristic of first-rate scientists can model its processes, values, and habits of mind in the classroom. It is this clear understanding of the nature of science that enables teachers to foster a student understanding of science that distinguishes between science, such as evolution and astronomy, and non-science, such as creationism and astrology. __And only teachers who understand the inquiry process can involve their students in doing their own consistent, strategic, logical, and legitimately scientific investigations.__

The transformation of a classroom of students from a group of passive individuals into a community of actively engaged learners is the hallmark of excellent science instruction. (See Standard V—//Sustaining a Learning// //Environment.//) For accomplished science teachers, a starting point for establishing such a productive learning climate is a deeply structured knowledge of the nature of science and the inquiry process.

__Accomplished science teachers possess a broad grasp of the fundamental concepts, laws, principles, theories, facts, and ideas that constitute the body of scientific knowledge__. Science is a collaborative social enterprise that builds on the achievements of previous generations. Accomplished teachers understand the major conceptual paradigms that researchers have developed over the years in the core science disciplines and use this knowledge to inform their practice. They understand the common misconceptions that their students may hold, including the research identifying these incorrect ideas. They also follow trends in the field to keep their knowledge and pedagogy current.
 * The Fundamental Concepts and Content Knowledge **

The content knowledge of accomplished teachers is centered around the unifying concepts and processes of science. Accomplished teachers in all subfields of science thoroughly know about systems, order, and organization; evidence, models, and explanation; constancy, change, and measurement; evolution and equilibrium; form and function; and cycles, and __they apply their knowledge in their teaching practice__. The understandings that characterize the knowledge base of the accomplished science teacher are notable for their integrated quality.

Accomplished science teachers should have strong content knowledge—that is, college-level proficiency—in earth and space science, life science, and physical science. __They should also have__ __ advanced proficiency in at least one area and some research experience __ __that includes designing their own laboratory investigations and exploring research of other scientists.__ Although all accomplished science teachers have a foundation of scientific knowledge that cuts across the disciplines, science teachers of adolescents and young adults tend to specialize in a single discipline while recognizing the need for integrated presentations of science. Such teachers demonstrate a depth of knowledge about earth and space science, biology, chemistry, or physics that permits them to hold their students’ interest and present an intellectually challenging curriculum. This indepth level of knowledge means that teachers have engaged in focused study of these sciences beyond the introductory college level. Additionally, accomplished teachers recognize the importance of mathematics in science teaching and are proficient in its application, including the use of algebra, geometry, statistics and probability, and discrete mathematics in modeling and solving science problems. Knowledge of calculus is important to understanding many emerging and ongoing theories across all science disciplines and is therefore recommended.

Accomplished teachers understand the origin, composition, and structure of the universe. They understand that Earth and celestial phenomena can be described by principles of relative motion and perspective, including the uniformity of materials and forces found everywhere in the universe, and the motions of the Earth and the materials and systems that compose it. They also know that many of the phenomena observed on Earth involve interactions among components of air, water, and land, driven by the transfer of energy. Accomplished teachers understand that matter is composed of particles whose properties determine the observable characteristics of matter and its reactivity. They understand the cycling processes that shape the Earth’s surface and the relationship of these processes to the living environment, for example, to the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans.
 * // Earth and Space Sciences //**

Accomplished teachers understand the diversity and unity that characterize life at the organismic and molecular levels; the genetic basis for the transfer of biological characteristics from one generation to the next and the molecular basis of genetic engineering; the structure and function of cells and the implications of their dysfunction; and the life cycle, particularly in reference to the human organism. They understand the dependence of all organisms on one another and on their environment; the cycling of matter and the flow of energy (under the laws of thermodynamics) through the living environment and the maintenance of a constant internal environment; the behavior of organisms; and the basic concepts of evolution of species and the consequences of the loss of species.
 * // Life Sciences //**

Accomplished teachers understand the similarities and differences of basic properties of matter and the principles governing their interactions; the forms that energy takes, its transformations from one form to another, and its relationship to matter; motion and the principles that explain it; the nature of atoms and molecules and the ways atoms and molecules can be transformed into different arrangements of matter; and the forces that exist between and within objects and atoms. They know how to use this knowledge of energy to interpret, explain, predict, and influence change in our natural world. The science topics within earth and space science, life science, and physical science reflect the central goals of well-regarded K–12 school science curricula. The correspondence between the science curriculum and the breadth of science knowledge expected of an accomplished teacher is deliberate. Science teachers at all levels know the fundamental facts and concepts of all areas of science that students have been charged with learning, in addition to their in-depth knowledge of one area. Several examples will help to elucidate the in-depth knowledge of accomplished teachers in a single discipline of science. First, consider a brief illustration of the difference between the knowledge base of all accomplished science teachers and that of the accomplished teacher who specializes in earth science. All teachers would know that energy enters the Earth system primarily as solar energy, that sources of internal energy are gravitational energy and the decay of matter, and that vertical ocean currents impact organisms. An accomplished teacher specializing in earth science would not only know that energy enters the Earth system primarily as solar radiation, but also would understand the connection of this energy to reflection, absorption, and photosynthesis; would not only know that convection within the atmosphere and oceans produces winds, but also could explain how differential heating results in circulation patterns in the atmosphere and oceans that globally distribute the heat; and would not only know that there are ocean currents, but also would be able to explain the properties of ocean water to describe the layered structure of the oceans, the generation of horizontal and vertical ocean currents, and the geographic distribution of marine organisms. Furthermore, a specialist in earth science would understand and convey to students how convection currents within the aesthenosphere drive the movement of plates and can relate the movement of convection currents to changes in densities of fluids caused by the transfer of heat energy.
 * // Physical Sciences //**

Second, consider an illustration of the difference between the knowledge base of all accomplished science teachers and that of the accomplished teacher specializing in biology. All science teachers would know that cells are the basic unit of living things and why this fact is important, that cells carry out the important functions of life: growth, reproduction, excretion, digestion, movement, synthesis, and response; how these functions occur; and how they vary across different organisms. An accomplished teacher specializing in biology or physiology would not only know that the cell membrane controls which molecules can enter and leave the cell, but also could explain the mechanics of the membrane’s selective permeability in terms of the fluidmosaic model; would not only know that the cell nucleus contains the coded instructions for building specialized proteins, but also could describe how double helix DNA molecules initiate this function in conjunction with various RNA molecules; and would not only know that there are structures inside the cell that perform functions essential for the cell’s survival, but also would be able to identify specific cytoplasmic organelles, such as mitochondria/chloroplasts and explain their part in cell respiration/photosynthesis. Third, consider the difference between the knowledge base of all accomplished science teachers and that of the accomplished teacher specializing in chemistry. All science teachers would know that all matter is composed of atoms; that atoms are made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons, and that the atoms of an element all contain the same number of protons in the nucleus; that there are 90 naturally occurring elements; and that very few elements are found in pure form because most elements are found in compounds.

An accomplished teacher specializing in chemistry would not only know that there are naturally occurring elements, but also could provide detail about cosmology and how the naturally occurring elements are said to be formed, as well as detailed explanations on the isotopes of elements, the energetics of the decay of isotopes and its various bi-products, and the determination of atomic and relative mass.

The accomplished teacher specializing in chemistry would not only know that electrons are found in the region about the nucleus, but also could describe the electron energy levels and explain how electronic structure determines the nature and type of bonds between atoms or groups of atoms by using basic calculus and quantum theory; and would not only know that there are electronic structures that influence the way atoms combine, but also would be able to explain characteristics and properties of various compounds and molecules formed by elements and explain the importance of the form and function of the periodic table. Fourth, consider the difference between the knowledge base of all accomplished science teachers and that of the accomplished teacher specializing in physics. All science teachers would know how to make and use position-time and velocity-time graphs to describe the position, velocity, and acceleration of a moving object; identify forces on a static and moving body in two dimensions; and explain static and moving charges in terms of an electron model. An accomplished teacher specializing in physics would not only know how to use position-time and velocity-time graphs, but also would know how to use vector analysis and basic calculus to make predictions about a moving object; would not only know how to identify forces on static and moving bodies, but also could predict and describe those forces in terms of a Newtonian force model; would not only know how to explain static and moving charges in terms of an electron model, but also would be able to explain the relationships between electricity and magnetism using Maxwell’s equations.

This significantly more comprehensive, sophisticated, and embellished knowledge of a particular discipline joins with a corresponding command of discipline-specific pedagogy that permits the accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teacher to practice at a high level. Such teachers possess a repertoire of instructional materials, experiments, demonstrations, analogies, and metaphors, along with an understanding of common misconceptions, puzzlements, and conceptual difficulties that are likely to challenge students. The wisdom of their practice allows them to interpret student actions accurately and helps them judge when and where to turn to various aspects of their teaching repertoire. Together these two vital aspects of professional knowledge elevate teaching practice.

Without regard to whether a teacher claims a particular specialty or has an all-science licensure, the answer to the depth question must always be couched in terms of the functional usefulness of the teacher’s knowledge as applied in classroom practice. In any area of science, it is the overall depth of the science teacher’s understanding of a topic, not fact recall, that is at a premium.

Accomplished science teachers understand science as an expression of the deep human impulse to explore and learn ever more about the natural world. They are acquainted with the history of science, including the key episodes in the development of the scientific world picture, and with the contributions of many cultures in both ancient and modern times. In addition to recognizing the difference between scientific and non-scientific questions, teachers understand what science and technology can or cannot reasonably contribute to society. They comprehend the ethical questions that science presents and bring such habits of mind as honesty, objectivity, and social responsibility to their teaching.
 * Historical, Social, Cultural, and Technological Contexts **

__Accomplished teachers can connect science to personal and social perspectives that are meaningful to students.__ They connect the unifying concepts and science content areas to personal and community health; population growth; natural resources; environmental quality; natural and human induced hazards; and science and technology in local, national, and global challenges. To illustrate these connections, teachers know classic examples. For instance, teachers know about the cholera epidemic in nineteenth- century England whereby physician and epidemiologist John Snow was able to prove that the disease spread through water, and they understand how this discovery eventually led to the development of the vacuum pump to transport water safely. Teachers also know current examples that can help students make connections between what students learn in class and what happens in the news.

Accomplished science teachers are aware of the interdependent and reciprocal relationships that have developed over the centuries among technology, mathematics, and science knowledge. They know how to use mathematics as a language to articulate scientific relationships and thereby to extrapolate or predict relationships from one context to another. They understand that science and technology are pursued for different purposes. While science as inquiry seeks to understand the natural world, technology is driven by the desire to meet human needs and solve human problems. Accomplished teachers understand that science and technology have exercised enormous influence over the course of human affairs and are aware of many instances of technology-driven change as well as the unforeseen consequences and social, political, and ethical dilemmas that frequently attend this change. (See Standard VIII—//Making Connections in Science.//)

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers employ a deliberately sequenced variety of research-driven instructional strategies and select, adapt, and create instructional resources to support active student exploration and understanding of science.
 * // Standard III: Understanding //**
 * // Science Teaching //**
 * ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE **

Accomplished science teachers understand the social nature of scientific learning and how peer investigators critique and build on one another’s cumulative achievements. Accomplished teachers know content, and they also know what content is difficult to teach and what is difficult to learn. They know that all students must have access to the vast accumulation of scientific knowledge, its history and lore, its relations to technology, and its impacts on society if they are to become scientifically literate in the fullest sense of the term. Teachers constantly balance two mutually complementary responsibilities—that of encouraging students’ explorations in science and that of guiding them toward an expanded understanding of scientific knowledge. Teachers use a wide variety of instructional resources, such as laboratory equipment and materials, technological tools, print resources, and resources from the local environment, as they create memorable learning experiences for their students.

Accomplished science teachers recognize that science is best taught within an articulated K–12 curricular structure developed around the major conceptual ideas in science, as identified by local, state, and national standards. Such an organizing template for curriculum and instruction reduces unnecessary repetition of material from one year to the next and, instead, sequences K 12 science curriculum to ensure a deepening of student understandings of particular concepts, appropriate introduction of new concepts, and a richer appreciation for how the various sciences reinforce one another. Accomplished science teachers in districts without such an articulated K 12 structure work to establish one.
 * Planning and Sequencing of Science Curriculum and Instruction **

In planning and sequencing curriculum and instruction, accomplished science teachers understand the need to give students access to the fundamental facts, concepts, laws, and theories of science without burying them under an avalanche of esoteric detail, and they thoughtfully organize curriculum and make pedagogical decisions with this need in mind. The problem with scientific facts is the incredible rate at which they are discovered and propagated. Just keeping track of the names of the various subspecialties in modern science is a daunting task; all the more daunting would be knowing the details of each. In making curricular choices, accomplished science teachers focus especially on fostering in their students deep understandings of topics. For example, they organize scientific information in the context of larger unifying concepts (such as evolution, the relationship of structure and function, cause and effect, energy flow) that cut across the various science disciplines and suggest the larger patterns found in the natural world.

Goal setting in the accomplished science teacher’s classroom is an interactive process. In most cases, instructional goals are initially defined broadly at the local, state, and national levels. With these standards and guidelines as a foundation, teachers establish long-range learning goals that are rigorous, worthwhile, and sensible to students. Accomplished teachers then organize, structure, and sequence learning activities that reflect these goals, and they plan assessments that will measure progress toward these goals. The actual executing of the activities is tailored to student needs and often includes a strong element of student initiative and direction.

__Accomplished teachers connect what they are teaching today with what they taught the day before and lay the groundwork for what they will teach next week; that is, their teaching is most effective when it reflects a well planned continuum.__ They understand the significance of when topics are introduced, how they are organized, and what level of cognitive sophistication they require. For example, an accomplished teacher might teach an ecology unit at the beginning of the school year to take advantage of the changing seasons and to give students time to mature and acquire the higher-level skills that they will need to deal with more abstract ideas, such as DNA.

Sequencing within a particular lesson is also important. For example, accomplished teachers make appropriate use of explicit introductory or summative teaching on essential science topics as part of a continuum of strategies. They recognize the importance of debriefing on activities for appropriate closure. The debriefings pull together the pieces of a hands-on experience to find out if students have met the intended learning goals, and if they have developed misconceptions that should be addressed in subsequent lessons.

Accomplished science teachers base their professional judgments about science curriculum and instruction on data collected from multiple sources. Their familiarity with contemporary research in science and science education enables them to evaluate a wide variety of instructional strategies and tools and to weigh evidence from research when making judgments that affect instruction in their classroom. They also continually collect and analyze data about their students’ and school’s performance to inform decisions they make about curriculum and instruction.

They interpret data from students in multiple ways, including disaggregating the data to analyze students’ performances. (See Standard I—//Understanding Students// and Standard IX—//Assessing for Results.//) They may conduct their own research, including classroom-based research, to inform their planning and instruction and that of their colleagues in the school and the community at large. (See Standard X—//Reflecting on// //Teaching and Learning// and Standard XI— //Developing Collegiality and Leadership.//)

To introduce and deepen conceptual knowledge in science, accomplished teachers purposefully design and implement a __wide variety of science activities__. Through substantive laboratory experiments, field experiences, the use of physical models, simulations, and other activities, they involve students in actively conducting their own scientific investigations. Written assignments, such as laboratory reports, reflection notebooks, and research projects, promote student analysis of science concepts and advance student literacy skills. Accomplished teachers inform students through a variety of science-rich readings (both assigned to a whole class and chosen independently by each student) that extend, contextualize, and enrich their hands-on science experiences.
 * Implementation of Science Curriculum and Instruction **

Accomplished teachers carry out demonstrations that dramatize underlying scientific principles and provide opportunities for group analyses. They introduce students to excellent and scientifically pertinent multimedia resources. They lead discussions and set up opportunities for small-group talk to help students digest new ideas and to make public useful strategies for promoting independent science thinking and effective science communication skills. Accomplished teachers develop a systematic approach to the teaching of concepts through research-based instructional strategies.

Accomplished teachers can __effectively balance helping students become confident in the practice of science and inculcating knowledge in them about the key organizing paradigms, terminology, and qualitative and quantitative concepts in the main scientific domains.__ These two aspects of the same unifying goal—scientific literacy—inform the daily instructional rhythm of their classrooms. For example, in teaching a unit about chemical reactions to adolescents and young adults, a teacher might arrange for students to participate in a variety of experiences in the laboratories, such as timing reactions that have a visible end point and comparing the rate of reaction at different temperatures, at different concentrations of reactants, and in the presence or absence of catalysts. The results of these experiments, relating reaction rate to the frequency and energy of molecular collisions, might then be translated visually in terms of a molecular model showing the structural rearrangements that occur during a simple chemical reaction. A look at some common industrial chemical practices (from the refining of petroleum to the functioning of the catalytic converter in the family car) might bring home to students the many practical applications of knowledge about factors affecting reaction rates. Accomplished teachers are deliberate in helping students become increasingly independent in linking science concepts to real-world experiences.

To assist students in understanding difficult content, accomplished teachers translate complex ideas into terms more available to their students. They know the best analogies and demonstrations to use in presenting difficult science concepts and constantly expand their repertoire of verbal and visual aids.

When using an analogy (for example, the work of mitochondria in a cell is much like that of a power generator in a building), teachers make sure that students understand not only where the valid similarities exist (both provide usable energy to run activities within a cell or a building), but also where the analogy breaks down (generally, a building has a power generator controlled by humans whereas mitochondrial activities are controlled by a series of biochemical reactions).

Overall, accomplished teachers operate with a sense of purpose in the classroom and know how to adjust their practice, as appropriate, to student performance and feedback. They make midcourse corrections when an activity falters and quickly improvise when an unanticipated learning opportunity presents itself. __They are willing to allow student learning to steer the direction of a lesson, but do so in ways that uphold the overarching conceptual framework and that promote accurate understandings.__ As a result, students have a stake in what happens in science class, even though their every suggestion may not be pursued. Teachers know their field and their students, including the fact adolescents and young adults work most productively in science when they have interest and ownership in the questions being investigated. Teachers act as facilitators of students’ intellectual explorations and initiatives and help guide them toward scientifically valid mental constructs about how the natural world works.

No classroom is an island. A variety of instructional resources—from laboratory materials and the tools of technology to print texts and resources from the local environment— can help students make the connections among the study of school science, their lives, and the world of science. Accomplished teachers select, adapt, create, and use an array of diverse instructional resources to engage students in meaningful learning. They continually mine the wealth of materials available for lesson plans, laboratories, and activities found on Web sites, in professional publications, at conferences and workshops, and from networking with other science teachers, and they add these to their repertoire. They tap into these instructional resources by choosing wisely among selections and by making optimum use of those that have been secured. They also recognize the rapid evolution of resources in science and keep abreast of new materials, tools, and techniques that they can incorporate into their classroom.
 * Instructional Resources **

Laboratory equipment and technology, used properly, extends and enhances the learning experience for students. Anyone who has seen a young student’s face light up with understanding after studying a drop of pond water under a microscope knows the truth of this statement. Traditional types of equipment, such as test tubes, balances, and metersticks, have long had a prominent role in effective science programs. In addition, accomplished teachers have in their instructional repertoire knowledge of modern laboratory tools and techniques that sufficiently prepare students for a wide range of post-secondary choices related to science. Instructional technology devices, such as graphing calculators, desktop and handheld computers, probes, and Webbased resources, are becoming increasingly available and useful, as more sophisticated interactive education software is developed for them. __Accomplished science teachers know how to make full use of this array of tools, as well as other emerging technologies, in ways that contribute to students’ active science explorations and accurate understandings.__
 * Laboratory Resources **
 * and Technology Tools **

Teachers who do not have access to advanced equipment use all available technology and tools, no matter how basic, and advocate for improved resources. They also teach about advanced technology tools, to prepare their students for access to these resources in the future.

The tools of electronic technology can assist in collecting, analyzing, and reporting laboratory data; serve as reference stations; and extend the range of experiences available to the student. Experiments too dangerous, too costly, or only available at a distance can be brought into the classroom for collaborative data analysis through the Internet. For example, students from different areas of the country can exchange information about the pH of local rainfall and gain insights into national and global weather patterns, air pollution, and energy pathways, while enriching their ability to make scientific connections using original data. Video and digital cameras allow students and teachers to collect data on many phenomena—for instance, documenting the phases of the moon, analyzing color, or quantifying complex motions, as well as bringing their own science-related projects and experiences into the classroom for discussion. Accomplished teachers also understand the importance of communicating information in varied media that best convey the intended message or analysis, and they design instruction so that students use such tools as multimedia presentations. Teachers have students take advantage of these technology tools to aid the students’ thinking; they know that scientific knowledge results from making sense of information, not from raw data itself.

__Accomplished teachers also take otherwise passive uses of technology, such as the presentation of a video clip, and make them active and student-centered through previewing activities, discussion during viewing, and follow-up activities.__ For example, teachers might have students use an action sequence of a film clip to calculate the velocity and acceleration of moving bodies.

Teachers promote independent student use of resources for learning as much as possible. They provide hands-on experiences with mechanical, electrical, and optical tools. They help students develop a positive attitude toward the use of tools and instruments as an extension of the five senses. Accomplished teachers are well aware of the safety issues relevant to student use of some equipment and materials. They understand how to adapt tools and procedures, so students can participate fully in scientific investigations without compromising either safety or academic rigor. (See Standard V—//Sustaining a Learning Environment.//)

Accomplished teachers know that readings can serve as important auxiliaries to their students’ growth in science literacy. They use written texts to support carefully planned curricular goals, instructional strategies, and ongoing assessments, not as a curricular formula to be blindly followed or as a substitute for the exercise of professional judgment.
 * Print Resources **

They have clear criteria for evaluating the quality of textual materials, including such factors as the accuracy and depth with which a limited number of topics are treated; the thought-provoking and engaging quality of the prose; and the recognition of the contributions of many cultures and diverse individuals to the development of science and technology. Teachers direct students to sources of related information—the library media center, science periodicals, monographs, Web sites, or databases—so that the textbook is never seen as the sole source of scientific knowledge. They know and can articulate their reasons for having students use a particular text. They teach students strategies that enable them to comprehend expository texts and graphics successfully. They also help students evaluate the credibility of sources and the validity of information.

The local environment provides another rich resource for science teachers to use to expand student science learning. For example, teachers might take students to local nature preserves, wetlands, parks, deserts, zoos, or rivers to do research. Teachers might also ask students to bring in rock and soil samples from their own neighborhoods to study at school or to map the school grounds for flora and fauna. Using the local environment not only enriches science understanding but also helps students make connections among the science disciplines. (See Standard IV— //Engaging the Science Learner// and Standard XII—//Connecting with Families and the Community.//)
 * Local Environment as **
 * Resource **

This second section pertains to those aspects of professional practice—motivating effort, shaping the classroom culture, and engaging and holding high expectations for all students—that enable Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers to create a positive learning environment.
 * Establishing a Favorable Context for Student Learning **

Perhaps the clearest indication of accomplished teaching in any discipline can be found in the response of students. The students of accomplished science teachers are constructively engaged in building deep and profound knowledge of the natural and engineered worlds. Students participate creatively in solving problems, offer ideas and listen attentively to the hypotheses of others, and generally display their involvement in and enjoyment of the process of discovery. Accomplished science teachers move their students toward meaningful and demonstrable learning gains in science by enlisting their students’ concerted effort and engaging them actively in learning.
 * // Standard IV: Engaging the Science Learner //**

Accomplished teachers are passionate about science; they exhibit a contagious enthusiasm in their teaching of the subject, its technological applications, and the natural world around them. This excitement need not be expressed ostentatiously; what is key is that students see that the pursuit of science is a source of intellectual satisfaction and intrigue for their teachers. Teachers are lifelong learners; for them, studying the natural world is like following the plot twists of an exciting thriller. They have a solid knowledge base in science, yet they are codiscoverers alongside their students, demonstrating that false starts, blind leads, mistakes, and anomalous results are part of the inquiry process.

Whenever possible, teachers choose activities and topics that relate to their students’ interests, experiences, and cultures and that support the curriculum they teach. They also draw on current events regarding science. Science is presented as a way of knowing concepts that explain how and why things happen the way they do, in a way that builds on and enlivens the concepts. Accomplished teachers know that focusing on the technological applications of a scientific principle can be a particularly effective way of grounding a discussion in the students’ reality.

Accomplished teachers do not simply present a topic; they introduce it in a captivating way. For example, they may use the novelty of a natural phenomenon (a fish that can change its gender) or the discrepancy between what students expect to happen and what actually occurs (blowing air over the top of a piece of paper raises it) to pique their students’ interest. In general, teachers introduce knowledge about science in the form of questions to be explored rather than answers to be learned. As teachers engage students actively in learning, they closely monitor students’ progress and make adjustments in their instructional approaches as needed. (See Standard IX—//Assessing for Results.//)

Accomplished teachers also extend science learning through student involvement beyond the classroom. For example, accomplished teachers may integrate science learning with promotion of civic responsibility by making students aware of nearby service organizations that have a scientific component. They may also search out meaningful projects that are feasible for students to undertake, ranging from engaging students in science fairs and other science competitions to developing campaigns to encourage healthy nutritional habits or community recycling, or designing water-conserving gardens in drought-susceptible communities. (See Standard III— //Understanding Science Teaching// and Standard XII—//Connecting with Families and the Community.//)

Through innovative and effective methods, accomplished science teachers are able to capture students’ interest and energy and channel them toward meaningful learning goals.

This third section of //Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards// focuses on the direct effect that accomplished science teaching has on student learning. The overall goal of science instruction has already been described as the fostering of science literacy in all students. Consistent with the Introduction and the description of a teacher’s background knowledge of science in Standard II—//Understanding Science,// science literacy is presented in this section in terms of developing in students three main capacities: experience with the science inquiry process itself, including the attitudes and habits of mind that characterize scientific investigation and advance students’ learning of key science concepts (Standard VII—//Fostering Science Inquiry//); an awareness of the human contexts of science, including the history of its co-evolution with technology and mathematics and the impact of science and technology on civilization (Standard VIII—//Making Connections in Science//); and science literacy demonstrated through techniques for assessing student progress (Standard IX—//Assessing for Results//).
 * Advancing Student Learning **

Scientific information is growing exponentially. Even fleeting coverage of the everexpanding amount of scientific information would be impossible in school science. Accomplished science teachers know that, as important as it is for students to acquire the fundamental understandings of science, they must also learn the strategies and procedures for approaching a problem scientifically. A basic goal of science instruction is to help students acquire the mental operations, habits of mind, and attitudes that characterize the process of scientific inquiry—that is, to teach students how scientists question, think, and reason. In the classrooms of accomplished science teachers, students engage in scientific inquiry by drawing upon prior science content knowledge as they deepen and expand their understanding of science.
 * // Standard VII: Fostering Science Inquiry //**

__Science teachers understand that the inquiry process is not a uniform series of predetermined steps and that scientists vary widely in how they seek knowledge about natural phenomena.__ Nevertheless, certain patterns in the methods of successful scientists are evident, for example, in their capacity to recognize problems, ask relevant questions, formulate working hypotheses, observe phenomena, record and interpret data and graphs accurately, reach tentative conclusions consistent with data, and express themselves clearly about the significance of findings. In the classrooms of accomplished science teachers, the scientific process is not a linear series of steps but a cyclical process based on data collection and the continual refinement of questions. Students’ acquisition of these mental capacities, and the habits of mind and attitudes that underlie them, are central to the science curriculum.

Accomplished science teachers use the entire spectrum of inquiry, from teacher- guided inquiry through student-driven investigations. __They ensure that hands-on activities occupy their students intellectually and set the stage for increasingly sophisticated classroom discourse.__ This focus on the interchange of ideas, whether through discussions or the sharing of written work, is key, for through such discourse and consensus, a classroom of individuals seeking knowledge transforms into a community of learners seeking common understanding. As individual students communicate their observations to their peers, they discover to what extent their perceptions are shared—and if not, why not. In the course of this multidirectional conversation, students refine, articulate, and elaborate on their own understandings of the natural world while developing an understanding of the rules of evidence and modes of argument that guide the inquiry process, as well as learning vocabulary characteristic of scientific discourse.

How is that ability in inquiry best facilitated? Teachers recognize that students profit from doing. To learn to view the world through a scientific lens, students must have abundant opportunities to practice the myriad of skills that such an ambitious goal entails. They must have frequent opportunities to take part in hands-on science activities that are followed by designated time to reflect on the significance of what they have done. For example, accomplished teachers promote long-term investigations and authentic student research in and beyond the classroom. They make full use of available scientific techniques and technology and capitalize on the laboratory resources they have available.

They know that many times an idea or concept can be addressed by an activity using household materials, such as string, masking tape, or balloons, rather than an expensive piece of equipment. Accomplished teachers in technology-rich environments make full use of the resources available, such as dataacquisition hardware and software, imaging technologies, and tools of biotechnology. They introduce their students to data available from outside sources and teach the critical- thinking skills necessary to evaluate such sources.

Accordingly, __teachers organize their classrooms around frequent, open-ended investigations of natural phenomena in which students initiate the pursuit of knowledge.__ In choosing or designing activities, teachers keep a number of important criteria in mind to ensure that the activities are standards-based and lead to significant learning. They use science and science education research to help find activities that are age-appropriate to the developmental level of their students; likely to raise interesting, worthwhile questions; relevant to the lives of all their students; and flexible. (See Standard III—//Understanding Science Teaching.//) A good activity allows active participation and student control over manipulating variables, posing questions, and using technology and data analysis. Accomplished teachers also select activities that engage students in using and improving their research and communication skills, such as writing laboratory reports and preparing presentations with graphs and visual displays. As part of research projects and investigations, accomplished teachers teach students how to integrate laboratory data with research from a variety of printed and electronic resources in ways that effectively communicate the results of student investigations.

Teachers know that the processes of science are underpinned by such qualities as curiosity, openness to new ideas, skepticism, the demand for evidence, respect for reason, honesty, objectivity, the rejection of dogma or authority as arbiters of whose position prevails, the acceptance of ambiguity, the willingness to modify explanations in light of new evidence, and teamwork. Teachers work to incorporate these values in their classrooms so that students acquire a sense of how science communities function by being part of such a community. (See Standard V— //Sustaining a Learning Environment.//) In facilitating classroom discussions or activities, accomplished teachers ask thought provoking and relevant questions. Such questions stimulate a rich interchange of ideas as teachers and students test one another’s assumptions, premises, and conclusions. Raising questions integrally related to the student’s concerns of the moment is one path to success in this arena. A well-posed question will often permit the students to push the discussion forward. Accomplished teachers also know how to guide students to ask questions that teachers believe will lead to important learning. Because they recognize the value of post-activity debriefings, teachers engage students in discussions to tie together all the activity’s elements and to ensure that students learned what they should have learned.

Teachers monitor their direct involvement in classroom discourse. They allow appropriate wait time after posing questions and after receiving responses to give students time to think. They value all contributions to a discussion, even as they coach students to probe the reasons that lie behind the opinion, and emphasize the need for credible evidence and consistency. They know when and how not to say too much and facilitate student-tostudent interactions that reflect peer-to-peer discussions by scientists. Discourse in their classrooms is characterized by the kind of tentative, hypothetical, exploratory language that scientists themselves use.

Accomplished teachers are mindful that a long-term goal of science education is to cultivate lifelong learners. They understand that students need time to develop fluency with science inquiry processes. They encourage this growth by offering their students abundant practice and, when opportune moments present themselves, demonstrations and directed instruction. For example, they might take the opportunity to talk through a science question that comes up in the course of a class discussion, “making public” the thought processes and strategies that an expert in science uses when faced with a new challenge. Accordingly, they take care to foster their students’ intellectual independence— at first, modeling and demonstrating the thinking processes of a scientist for their student apprentices, but gradually making way for increasingly student-generated questions.

In pursuing an inquiry-based curriculum, accomplished science teachers take risks. They are willing to live with the sometimes unpredictable consequences of an activityand student-centered pedagogy. They know that experiments and student interpretations of them will not always—or even very often—proceed exactly as planned. They endure the temporary frustration on the part of students as a predictable aspect of the inquiry process because they know that the conclusions students earn are lastingly their own, and that acquiring the processes of science implies experiencing all the sensations of scientists—including, from time to time, confusion.

Science is a way of looking at the world and interpreting it in a thoughtful, creative, and logical manner. It is an ongoing sense-making activity with deep roots in humankind’s collective past and huge implications for the shape of its future. For students to see science as alive with possibilities, accomplished science teachers know that students need regular exposure to the human contexts of science. They need to learn stories from the past about the struggles, setbacks, and triumphs of individuals and teams of investigators in their quests for deeper understanding of the natural world. They need to see examples of the interdependent relationship among science, technology, and mathematics and examples of ethical dilemmas, both current and past, that surround particular scientific activities, discoveries, and technologies. They need opportunities to think about and work through the pervasive, sometimes deleterious, economic, cultural, and social changes science has induced. Accomplished teachers are aware of the origins of science and make explicit the multiple connections between its progress and the course of civilizations.
 * // Standard VIII: Making Connections in Science //**

Through their instructional choices, accomplished teachers invite students to explore these relationships across the disciplines instead of adhering rigidly to disciplinary boundaries.

Accomplished teachers fill their classrooms with engaging and stimulating material that students can use in their investigations of science history. They understand that students may identify with certain groups, and they prepare materials relevant to their students. They introduce topics and issues that will entice all their students—especially girls and underrepresented minorities—to participate actively and enthusiastically in class discussions and activities. They know that the study of science history is an excellent opportunity to have their students read and write in the discipline.

Accomplished science teachers provide a complete picture of the human contexts of science. In broaching a topic, they acquaint students with stories of some of the people and major events that produced or were affected by a discovery. On occasion, they may confront students with the same intellectual problem faced by a previous investigator and ask for proposed solutions. They do so for a variety of reasons. One of the best ways for students to learn how science transpires is to encounter concrete examples that illustrate the reality, for example, that science is a collective enterprise that ordinarily grows by accretion through the contributions of many investigators operating within a stable paradigm; that paradigm shifts or revolutions are usually resisted by the scientific establishment; that scientists are subject to the same weaknesses and temptations as people in other lines of work; and that the scientific community demands reproducible proof and eventually yields to logic based on it.

Accomplished teachers also make sure that students develop a rich and diverse historical perspective about science because teachers realize that such knowledge is part of students’ shared cultural heritage. These teachers emphasize the inquisitive nature of scientists, the ways scientific investigation has manifested itself in leading to scientific discovery, and the role a healthy sense of wonder plays in the lives of all people who value science. Certain episodes are so seminal to the development of modern science— for example, Copernicus’s model of planetary motion displacing man from the center of the universe, Lise Meitner’s early work in modern atomic theory, Charles Drew’s discovery of blood plasma—that all students deserve access to them. A historical perspective makes students aware of the impressive sophistication of early civilizations, such as Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Aztec, Incan, and Polynesian scientific thinking. Teachers incorporate and include the contributions of historically underrepresented groups, such as women, minorities, and indigenous peoples. Accomplished teachers teach their students about the impact of science on art and literature and about the universal drive in all societies to understand and better use their natural environment.

The instructional practices that characterize accomplished science teachers are also notable for their integrated quality across subject areas. Accomplished teachers have developed powerful mental schema for interpreting phenomena in terms of large interdisciplinary patterns. They actively push for interdisciplinary connections within science and with other disciplines. They might, for example, have students make connections among the disciplines of sciences by having students analyze concentrations of pollutants in water and air (chemistry) and discuss the emerging theory of sepsis (biology). A crossdisciplinary unit could be based on the writing of an author such as Charles Dickens. Students could read a Dickens novel (reading and language arts), and they could explore the environmental issues of late nineteenthcentury London (science). Students could then prepare impact studies to examine the influence that Dickens had on the decision of London magistrates to pass laws to control pollution (civics and science). They also could study the child labor laws that stemmed from scientific progress during the Industrial Revolution (social studies (history and science).

Historically, the scientific endeavor has developed out of a fruitful union of science, mathematics, and technology. Studying the history of science tends to highlight the reciprocal relationship in the development of these three modes of thought, each of which has an essential place in the education of the scientifically literate individual. Teachers help students explore this mutual interdependence, including helping students understand the differences between science—the effort to gain knowledge about nature for its own sake—and technology—the effort to assert control over nature for the benefit of humankind—as well as the use of mathematics in both.

By engaging students in thinking critically about the interaction of technological change and society, accomplished science teachers enable students to appreciate that these endeavors provide important benefits, but that technological solutions can exist only within natural and ethical constraints; that these solutions frequently have significant and unforeseen side effects; that all technologies involve tradeoffs; and that the public— as consumers and voters—ultimately must decide which technologies to rely on as a society. Teachers share with students examples of such key advances in science and technology as those in medicine that have reduced infant mortality and extended the average life span. They also help students understand the ethical complexities of science and technology and their impact on global issues in such contemporary examples as the human genome, cloning, weapons of mass destruction, and germ warfare.

Teachers help students understand how to use the process of science inquiry to search for information on which to base decisions in all areas of their lives. Accomplished teachers ensure that students recognize the appropriate foundation for their decisions; some decisions will be based on scientific facts, whereas others will be grounded in moral beliefs, worldviews, religion, and family and cultural values. In guiding their students in discussing the ethical issues raised by science, accomplished teachers do not impose their own values but help their students develop the critical-thinking skills they will need to make appropriate choices in a world dominated by fast-moving changes in all the sciences. Teachers understand that critical thinking has a motivating power and intrinsic value in helping students understand the nature of technology and its influence on the quality of life.